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<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 20.&nbsp; DETERMINERS</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 234-->
As indicated in the tables below, many determiners can be used either as
adjectives or as pronouns. As will be pointed out in the next chapter,
when a determiner is used as an adjective modifying a noun, the determiner
usually precedes any other adjectives modifying the same noun.<BR>
<BR>
The use of the following determiners has already been discussed in
previous chapters: <B>a</B>, <B>an</B>, <B>the</B>, <B>this</B>, <B>that</B>, </B>these</B> and <B>those</B>.
The possessive adjectives <B>my</B>, <B>your</B>, <B>his</B>, <B>her</B>, <B>our</B> and
<B>their</B> can also be classified as determiners.<BR>
<A NAME="adj"></A>
<BR>
As indicated below, many determiners may be used only with certain types
of noun. In the following tables, the abbreviation <B>CN</B> stands for
<A HREF="gramch13.html#2"><B>Countable Noun</B></A>, and the abbreviation <B>UN</B> stands for <A HREF="gramch16.html"><B>Uncountable Noun</B></A>.
In these tables, the noun <B>tree</B> is used as an example of a countable
noun, and the noun <B>grass</B> is used as an example of an uncountable noun.<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Determiners used as Adjectives</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Determiner</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Used With</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Example</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Meaning</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; all</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; all trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; trees in general</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; all grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; grass in general</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; another</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; another tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; one additional or different tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; any</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; any tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to one tree, without</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specifying which, of a group</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of more than 2 trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; any trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 2 or more trees,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; without specifying which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; any grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to some grass,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; without specifying which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; both</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; both trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 2 trees of a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; group of 2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; each</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; each tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to every tree,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; considered individually,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of a group of 2 or more</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; either</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; either tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 1 of 2 trees,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; without specifying which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; enough</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; enough trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a sufficient number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; enough grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a sufficient amount of grass</TD></TR>

<!--page 235-->
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; every</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; every tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; all trees, without exception,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of a group of more than 2 trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; few</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; few trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a small number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; fewer</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; fewer trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a smaller number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; less</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; less grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a smaller amount of grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; little</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; little grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a small amount of grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; many</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; many trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a large number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; more</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; more trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; an additional number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; more grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; an additional amount of grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; most</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; most trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; nearly all trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; most grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; nearly all grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; much</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; much grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a large amount of grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; neither</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; neither tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; no tree of a group of 2 trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; no</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; no tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; not any tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; no trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; not any trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; no grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; not any grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; one</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; one tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; a single tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; only</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; only trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; nothing except trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; only grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; nothing except grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; other</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; other trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; different trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; other grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; different grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; several</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; several trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; more than 2 trees, but not</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; a large number of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; some</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; an unspecified tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; unspecified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; unspecified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; such</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; such a tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; a tree of a certain kind</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; such trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; trees of a certain kind</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; such grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; grass of a certain kind</TD></TR>

<!--page 236-->
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; that</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; that tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; a particular tree, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; is not nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; that grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; particular grass, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; is not nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; these</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; these trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; particular trees, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; are nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; this</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; this tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; a particular tree, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; is nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; this grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; particular grass, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; is nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; those</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; those trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; particular trees, which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; are not nearby</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; what</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; what tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks in general for one</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; tree to be specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; what trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks in general for particular</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; trees to be specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; what grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks in general for particular</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; grass to be specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; which</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; which tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks for one tree to be specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; from a certain group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; which trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks for trees to be specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; from a certain group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; which grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks for some of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; grass to be specified</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
<A NAME="pro"></A>
<BR>
The following determiners can be used independently, as pronouns:<BR>
<BR>
<CENTER><B>Determiners used as Pronouns</B></CENTER><BR>
<TABLE width="95%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD><U><B>Determiner</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Used With</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Example</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Meaning</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; all</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; all (of) the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to every tree in a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; group of more than 2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; all (of) the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to the whole amount</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of certain specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; another</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; another of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; one more of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified trees</TD></TR>

<!--page 237-->
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; any</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; any of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 1 or more</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; unspecified trees from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; group of more than 2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; any of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to some of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; both</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; both of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 2 trees of a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; group of 2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; each</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; each of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to every tree,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; considered individually,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of a group of 2 or more</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; either</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; either of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; refers to 1 of 2 trees,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; without specifying which</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; enough</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; enough of the tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; a sufficient amount of a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; enough of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a sufficient number of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; enough of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a sufficient amount of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; few</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; few of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a small number from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; fewer</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; fewer of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a smaller number from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; less</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; less of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a smaller amount of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; little</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; little of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a small amount of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; many</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; many of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a large number of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; more</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; more of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; an additional number of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; more of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; an additional amount of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; most</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN </TD><TD>&nbsp;most of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; nearly all of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; most of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; nearly all of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified grass</TD></TR>

<!--page 238-->
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; much</TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; much of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; a large proportion of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; neither</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; neither of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; no tree of a group of 2 trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; none</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; none of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; no tree of certain specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; none of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; no grass of certain specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; one</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; one of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; a single tree of certain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; specified trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; others</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; others of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; different trees, from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; particular group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; several</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; several of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; more than 2, but not a large</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; number, of certain specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; some</TD><TD>&nbsp; singular CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some of the tree</TD><TD>&nbsp; an unspecified portion of</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;a particular tree</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; unspecified trees from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; particular group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; some of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; an unspecified portion</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of particular grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; such</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; such of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; trees of a certain kind,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; from a certain specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;group of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; UN</TD><TD>&nbsp; such of the grass</TD><TD>&nbsp; grass of a certain kind,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; from certain specified</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; grass</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; those</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; those of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; particular trees, from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; certain specified group</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; of trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>

<TR><TD>&nbsp; which</TD><TD>&nbsp; plural CN</TD><TD>&nbsp; which of the trees</TD><TD>&nbsp; asks for one or more trees</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; to be specified, from a</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; &nbsp; particular group of trees</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Determiners used to refer to groups of two persons or things</B></CENTER><BR>

In Old English, there were singular forms, plural forms and dual
forms. Dual forms are used to refer to two persons or things. In
modern English, a few words still remain which refer to two persons or
things.<BR>


<!--page 239-->
For example, the determiners <B>both</B>, <B>either</B> and <B>neither</B> are used
when referring to groups of <U>two</U>. <B>Both</B> refers to two things of a group
of two, <B>either</B> refers to one thing of a group of two, and <B>neither</B>
refers to zero things of a group of two.<BR>
e.g. I have <U>two</U> brothers. <B>Both</B> of them are engineers.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I had <U>two</U> maps of the city, but I cannot find <B>either</B> of them.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; There are <U>two</U> textbooks for the course. <B>Neither</B> of them is expensive.<BR>
<A NAME="1al"></A>
<BR>
In contrast, the determiners <B>all</B>, <B>any</B> and <B>none</B> may be used when
referring to groups with <U>more than two</U> members. <B>All</B> may refer to every
member of a group of three or more, <B>any</B> may refer to one member of a
group of three or more, and <B>none</B> may refer to zero members of a group
of three or more.<BR>
e.g. I have <U>three</U> brothers. <B>All</B> of them are engineers.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I had <U>four</U> maps of the city, but I cannot find <B>any</B> of them.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; There are <U>six</U> textbooks for the course. <B>None</B> of them is expensive.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<BR>
<BR>
The following rules for the use of <B>either</B> and <B>neither</B> should be
noted.<BR>
<A NAME="1ne"></A>
<BR>
If it is desired to change a clause <U>beginning</U> with <B>either</B> so as to
express a negative meaning, <B>either</B> must be changed to <B>neither</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Either</B> of the alternatives is acceptable.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>Neither</B> of the alternatives is acceptable.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Either</B> hotel will offer you its best room.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>Neither</B> hotel will offer you its best room.<BR>
<BR>
A sentence which contains the word <B>either</B>, in which <B>either</B> does <U>not</U> occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative
meaning either by using the word <B>not</B>, or by changing <B>either</B> to
 neither</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: You may borrow <B>either</B> of the books.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: You may <B>not</B> borrow <B>either</B> of the books.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: You may borrow <B>neither</B> of the books.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: I might give the message to <B>either</B> boy.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: I might <B>not</B> give the message to <B>either</B> boy.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: I might give the message to <B>neither</B> boy.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that in modern English, the determiner <B>neither</B>
is most often used only at the beginning of a clause. Otherwise,
the meaning of <B>neither</B> is usually expressed by the combination
<B>not ... either</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In addition to being used as determiners, the words <B>both</B>, <B>either</B>
and <B>neither</B> can also be used as conjunctions. Conjunctions will be
discussed in <A HREF="gramch28.html">Chapter 28</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 240-->
<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Determiners used as singular or plural pronouns</B></CENTER><BR>

In formal English, the pronouns <B>another</B>, <B>each</B>, <B>either</B>, <B>neither</B>
and <B>one</B> always take <U>singular</U> verbs.<BR>
e.g. <B>Each</B> of the children <U>wants</U> to win the prize.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Either</B> of the alternatives <U>is</U> acceptable.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Neither</B> of the books <U>has</U> good illustrations.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Every <B>one</B> of the students <U>was</U> ready on time.<BR>
In these examples, the singular verbs <B>wants</B>, <B>is</B>, <B>has</B>, and <B>was</B>
are used with the pronouns <B>each</B>, <B>either</B>, <B>neither</B> and <B>one</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In informal English, plural verbs are sometimes used with pronouns such
as <B>each</B>, <B>either</B> and <B>neither</B>.<BR>
e.g. <B>Neither</B> of the books <U>have</U> good illustrations.<BR>
However, this use of the plural verb is considered to be grammatically
incorrect in formal English.<BR>
<BR>
It should also be noted that in formal English, when the words <B>another</B>,
<B>each</B>, <B>every</B>, <B>either</B>, <B>neither</B> and <B>one</B> are used in combination
with personal pronouns or possessive adjectives, singular forms are always
used. As mentioned previously, in formal English, the adjective <B>his</B> or
the phrase <B>his or her</B> may be used when referring to a group containing
both male and female members.<BR>
e.g. <B>Each</B> of the children waited impatiently for <B>his</B> turn.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Every</B> student raised <B>his or her</B> hand.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Neither</B> of the girls has finished <B>her</B> homework.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Either</B> of the hotels will offer you <B>its</B> best room.<BR>
In these examples, <B>each</B>, <B>every</B>, <B>neither</B> and <B>either</B> are used in
combination with the singular forms <B>his</B>, <B>his or her</B>, <B>her</B> and <B>its</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In informal English, plural possessive adjectives are often used in this
type of sentence.<BR>
e.g. <B>Neither</B> of the girls finished <B>their</B> homework.<BR>
However, this use of the plural possessive adjective is considered to be
grammatically incorrect in formal English.<BR>
<BR>
It should be noted that in both formal and informal English, <B>none</B> is
used sometimes with singular, and sometimes with plural verbs.<BR>
e.g. None of them <U>is</U> here. <B>or</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; None of them <U>are</U> here.<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, the pronouns <B>both</B>, <B>few</B>, <B>many</B> and <B>several</B> are
always <U>plural</U>. They take plural verbs, and are used in combination with
plural personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. In addition, the
pronoun <B>all</B> is always plural when used with countable nouns.<BR>
e.g. <B>Both</B> of the boys <U>have completed</U> <B>their</B> essays.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Several</B> of the musicians <U>are giving</U> <B>their</B> first performances tonight.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>All</B> of the girls <U>have finished</U> <B>their</B> homework.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, the pronouns <B>both</B>, <B>several</B> and <B>all</B> take the
plural verbs <B>have completed</B>, <B>are giving</B> and <B>have finished</B>, and
are used in combination with the plural possessive adjective <B>their</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 241-->
<A NAME="3"></A>
<CENTER><B>3. The use of All, Both and Each</B></CENTER><BR>

In addition to being used as attributive adjectives and as pronouns
followed by <B>of</B>, the words <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and <B>each</B> can also be used in
<B>apposition</B>. A word used in apposition immediately follows the subject of
a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition, and refers to the same
thing as the subject or object. In the following examples, the words in
apposition are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. We <B>both</B> wondered what would happen next.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The boys <B>all</B> looked forward to seeing the circus.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I sent them <B>each</B> an invitation.<BR>
<BR>
In the first two examples, <B>both</B> and <B>all</B> are used in apposition to
the subjects <B>we</B> and <B>the boys</B>. In the third example, <B>each</B> is used
in apposition to the object <B>them</B>.<BR>
<BR>
Words used in apposition can be referred to as <B>appositives</B>. Like
relative clauses, appositives can be defining or non-defining.
Non-defining appositives must be preceded and followed by commas.<BR>
e.g. Our leader, <B>Tom Smith</B>, was prepared for any emergency.<BR>
In this example <B>Tom Smith</B> is a non-defining appositive, in apposition
to <B>our leader</B>.<BR>
<A NAME="3da"></A>
<BR>
Defining appositives such as <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and <B>each</B> are not preceded
and followed by commas.<BR>
e.g. We <B>each</B> have our own ideas.<BR>
In this example, the defining appositive <B>each</B> is in apposition to
<B>we</B>. It should be noted that although <B>each</B> is singular, the verb
<B>have</B> must be plural to agree with the subject <B>we</B>.<BR>
<BR>
When used in clauses with auxiliary verbs or with the Simple Present
or Simple Past of the verb <B>to be</B>, <B>all</B>, <B>both</B> and <B>each</B> generally
follow the first auxiliary or the verb <B>to be</B>, rather than being used
in apposition to the subject of the verb.<BR>
e.g. The boys <U>had</U> <B>all</B> <U>been looking</U> forward to seeing the circus.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We <U>are</U> <B>both</B> very happy to see you.<BR>
In the first example, <B>all</B> follows the first auxiliary <B>had</B>. In the
second example, <B>both</B> follows the Simple Present of the verb <B>to be</B>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="4"></A>
<CENTER><B>4. The use of No, None and Not</B></CENTER><BR>

The words <B>no</B>, <B>none</B> and <B>not</B> have similar meanings, but different
grammatical functions.<BR>
<BR>
The determiner <B>no</B> can be used as an adjective, but not as a pronoun;
whereas <B>none</B> can be used as a pronoun, but not as an adjective.<BR>
e.g. He has <B>no</B> books.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>None</B> of the books are his.<BR>
In the first example, <B>no</B> is used as an adjective modifying the noun
<B>books</B>. In the second example, <B>none</B> functions as a pronoun.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 242-->
As has already been pointed out, the adverb <B>not</B> may be placed after
the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb <B>to be</B>, or after the
first auxiliary of other verbs, in order to form a negative sentence
or clause.<BR>
e.g. You are <B>not</B> late.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I have <B>not</B> forgotten what you said.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<BR>
Just as <B>neither</B> can be said to be equivalent to the combination
<B>not ... either</B>, <B>none</B> can be said to be equivalent to <B>not ... any</B>.
For instance, the following sentence:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He will have <B>no</B> difficulty.<BR>
could also be written:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He will <B>not</B> have <B>any </B>difficulty.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="5"></A>
<CENTER><B>5. The use of Some and Any</B></CENTER><BR>

The determiners <B>some</B> and <B>any</B> have slightly different meanings. The
use of the word <B>some</B> generally implies a belief in the existence of
the object or objects under consideration, whereas the use of the word
<B>any</B> may imply a doubt about the existence of the object or objects
under consideration.<BR>
<BR>
The words <B>some</B>, <B>somebody</B>, <B>someone</B>, <B>something</B> and <B>somewhere</B>
are used in affirmative statements, as well as in polite questions and
questions expecting an affirmative reply.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Statement</U>: I saw <B>some</B> birds in the park.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Polite Question</U>: Would you like <B>some</B> tea?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Reply Expected</U>: You seem worried. Is <B>something</B> wrong?<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, the words <B>any</B>, <B>anybody</B>, <B>anyone</B>, <B>anything</B> and
<B>anywhere</B> are used in questions and negative statements, as well as
in affirmative statements referring in an indefinite way to a type of
object, without specifying a particular object.<BR>
e.g. <U>Question</U>: Did you see <B>any</B> birds in the park?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Statement</U>: I do not know <B>anyone</B> here.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Indefinite Reference</U>: <B>Any</B> drug store can supply you with aspirin.<BR>
<BR>
The words <B>some</B>, <B>somebody</B>, <B>someone</B>, <B>something</B> and <B>somewhere</B>
usually cannot be used in a negative statement. If it is desired to
change a clause <U>beginning</U> with the word <B>some</B> so that it expresses a
negative meaning, <B>some</B> may be changed to <B>no</B> or <B>none</B>, depending on
whether an adjective or pronoun is required.<BR>
<BR>
In the following example, <B>some</B> is used as an adjective modifying the
noun <B>books</B>. In order to change the sentence to express a negative
meaning, <B>some</B> is replaced by the adjective <B>no</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Some</B> books were left on the shelf.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>No</B> books were left on the shelf.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 243-->
In the following example, <B>some</B> is used as a pronoun. In order to
change the sentence to express a negative meaning, <B>some</B> is replaced
by the pronoun <B>none</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Some</B> of the visitors arrived late.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>None</B> of the visitors arrived late.<BR>
<BR>
Similarly, if it is desired to change a clause beginning with <B>somebody</B>,
<B>someone</B>, <B>something</B> or <B>somewhere</B> so that it expresses a negative
meaning, these words may be replaced by <B>nobody</B>, <B>no one</B>, <B>nothing</B>
and <B>nowhere</B>, respectively.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Someone</B> left a message.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>No one</B> left a message.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: <B>Something</B> has happened.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: <B>Nothing</B> has happened.<BR>
<BR>
A sentence containing the word <B>some</B>, in which <B>some</B> does <U>not</U> occur
at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative
meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement using <B>not</B>, and by changing <B>some</B> to <B>any</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: I bought <B>some</B> potatoes.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: I did <B>not</B> buy <B>any</B> potatoes.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: We will copy <B>some</B> of the recipes.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: We will <B>not</B> copy <B>any</B> of the recipes.<BR>
<BR>
It is possible to use <B>no</B> or <B>none</B> in such sentences instead of the
construction with <B>not ... any</B>.<BR>
e.g. I bought <B>no</B> potatoes.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We will copy <B>none</B> of the recipes.<BR>
However, in modern English, the construction with <B>not ... any</B> is more
often used than the construction with <B>no</B> or <B>none</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#4">Exercise 4</A>.<BR>
<BR>
Similarly, a sentence containing the word <B>somebody</B>, <B>someone</B>,
<B>something</B> or <B>somewhere</B>, in which the word beginning with <B>some</B>
does <U>not</U> occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express
a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement
using <B>not</B>, and by changing the word beginning with <B>some</B> to the
corresponding word beginning with <B>any</B>.<BR>
e.g. <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: I met <B>someone</B> I used to know.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: I did <B>not</B> meet <B>anyone</B> I used to know.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Affirmative Meaning</U>: We will buy <B>something</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Negative Meaning</U>: We will <B>not</B> buy <B>anything</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In such sentences, <B>nobody</B>, <B>no one</B>, <B>nothing</B> or <B>nowhere</B> may be
used instead of a negative statement with <B>not</B> and the word <B>anybody</B>,
<B>anyone</B>, <B>anything</B> or <B>anywhere</B>.<BR>

<!--page 244-->
e.g. I met <B>no one</B> I used to know.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We will buy <B>nothing</B>.<BR>
However, the construction with <B>not</B> is more often used.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#5">Exercise 5</A>.
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="6"></A>
<CENTER><B>6. The use of Another, Other, Others and Else</B></CENTER>

The words <B>another</B>, <B>other</B>, <B>others</B> and <B>else</B> are used to indicate
one or more additional or different things.<BR>
<BR>
<B>Another</B> is formed from a combination of the words <B>an</B> and <B>other</B>,
and has a meaning similar to <B>one other</B>. When used as an adjective,
<B>another</B> can precede only a singular countable noun. When used as a
pronoun, <B>another</B> takes a singular verb.<BR>
e.g. Please bring me <B>another</B> knife.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Another</B> of her uncles <U>lives</U> in Montreal.<BR>
In the first example, <B>another</B> modifies the singular noun <B>knife</B>. In
the second example, the pronoun <B>another</B> is the subject of the singular
verb <B>lives</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>Other</B> can be used with singular countable, plural countable or
uncountable nouns.<BR>
e.g. The <B>other</B> <U>door</U> is open.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The <B>other</B> <U>streets</U> are paved.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Do you have any <B>other</B> <U>luggage</U>?<BR>
In these examples, <B>other</B> modifies the singular countable noun <B>door</B>,
the plural countable noun <B>streets</B>, and the uncountable noun <B>luggage</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>Another</B> usually <U>cannot</U> be immediately preceded by a determiner. In
contrast, when used before a singular countable noun, <B>other</B> usually
<U>must</U> be preceded by a determiner.<BR>
e.g. Please pass me <U>the</U> <B>other</B> cup.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I do not know <U>any</U> <B>other</B> way to do it.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; There must be <U>some</U> <B>other</B> explanation.<BR>
In these examples, <B>other</B> is used with the singular countable nouns
<B>cup</B>, <B>way</B> and <B>explanation</B>, and is preceded by the determiners
<B>the</B>, <B>any</B> and <B>some</B>.<BR>
<BR>
When <B>other</B> modifies a singular countable noun, the noun is sometimes
omitted, particularly in the expression <B>one ... the other</B>.<BR>
e.g. I have two pens. <B>One</B> is green and the <B>other</B> is blue.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>One</B> of my parents is a teacher; the <B>other</B> is a doctor.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, the nouns following the word <B>other</B> are understood,
rather than expressed. In the following sentences, the nouns which are
understood are enclosed in square brackets.<BR>
e.g. I have two pens. <B>One</B> is green and the <B>other</B> [pen] is blue.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>One</B> of my parents is a teacher; the <B>other</B> [parent] is a doctor.<BR>
<A NAME="6ot"></A>
<BR>

<!--page 245-->
<B>Others</B> is a pronoun. <B>Others</B> can be used to take the place of the
word <B>other</B>, followed by a plural countable noun.<BR>
e.g. Those trees are hemlocks; the <B>others</B> are pines.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Ten people belong to the group, and five <B>others</B> are planning to join.<BR>
In the first example, <B>others</B> takes the place of the words <B>other trees</B>.
In the second example, <B>others</B> takes the place of the words <B>other people</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>Others</B> is often used in the expression <B>some ... others</B>.
<BR>
e.g. <B>Some</B> books are easy to read, but <B>others</B> are quite difficult.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>Some</B> people like classical music, while <B>others</B> prefer jazz.<BR>
<A NAME="6el"></A>
<BR>
The word <B>else</B> has a meaning similar to <B>other</B>. However, rather than
being used as an adjective preceding a noun, <B>else</B> usually follows
interrogative pronouns such as <B>who</B> and <B>what</B>, and indefinite pronouns
such as <B>anyone</B> and <B>someone</B>.<BR>
e.g. Who <B>else</B> was at the meeting?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; What <B>else</B> is on the agenda?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Has anyone <B>else</B> solved the problem?<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Someone <B>else</B> may be able to help you.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#6">Exercise 6</A>.
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="7"></A>
<CENTER><B>7. The use of Only</B></CENTER><BR>

In addition to being used as a determiner, the word <B>only</B> can be used
to modify almost any part of a sentence. In general, the word <B>only</B>
immediately precedes the part of the sentence which it modifies.<BR>
<BR>
The following examples illustrate how changing the position of the word
<B>only</B> can change the meaning of a sentence.<BR>
e.g. <B>Only</B> the trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: <U>Nothing except the trees</U> was somewhat damaged by last year's
storm.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The <B>only</B> trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: <U>The few trees which existed</U> were somewhat damaged by last
year's storm.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The trees were <B>only</B> somewhat damaged by last year's storm.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: The trees were <U>not completely damaged</U> by last year's storm.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The trees were somewhat damaged <B>only</B> by last year's storm.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: The trees were somewhat damaged by <U>nothing except</U> last
year's storm.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The trees were somewhat damaged by last year's <B>only</B> storm.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: The trees were somewhat damaged by <U>the one storm which
occurred last year</U>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#7">Exercise 7</A>.
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<!--page 246-->
<A NAME="8"></A>
<CENTER><B>8. The use of Few, Little and Several</B></CENTER><BR>

The use of the word <B>a</B> with the determiners <B>few</B> and <B>little</B> somewhat
changes the meaning which is expressed.<BR>
<BR>
The expressions <B>a few</B> and <B>a little</B> merely refer to a small quantity
of something.<BR>
e.g. <B>A few</B> of his friends came to the party.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: Some of his friends came to the party.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I had <B>a little</B> time to consider the situation.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: I had a small amount of time to consider the situation.<BR>
<BR>
In contrast, <B>few</B> and <B>little</B> not only refer to a small quantity of
something, but also imply that the quantity is remarkably, or undesirably
small.<BR>
e.g. <B>Few</B> of his friends came to the party.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: Only a very small number of his friends came to the party.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I had <B>little</B> time to consider the situation.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: I had almost no time to consider the situation.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#8">Exercise 8</A>.<BR>
<A NAME="8se"></A>
<BR>
The expressions <B>a few</B> and <B>several</B> can both be used to refer to three
or more things. However, there is a slight difference in meaning. The
expression <B>a few</B> generally emphasizes that the quantity referred to is
relatively small, while the expression <B>several</B> generally emphasizes
that the quantity referred to is relatively large.<BR>
<BR>
For instance, the following sentences could both refer to an event which
occurred four or five times.<BR>
e.g. I saw him <B>a few</B> times.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: I saw him, but I did not see him often.<BR>
<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I saw him <B>several</B> times.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Meaning</U>: I saw him more than once or twice.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="9"></A>
<CENTER><B>9. The expressions Such ... That, So ... That, and Too</B></CENTER><BR>

<A NAME="9a"></A>
<B>a. Such ... That</B><BR>
The determiner <B>such</B> is often used in combination with a clause
beginning with <B>that</B>, in order to indicate a cause and effect
relationship.<BR>
e.g. There was <B>such</B> a strong wind <B>that</B> we decided to stay indoors.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He has <B>such</B> high marks <B>that</B> he has applied for a scholarship.<BR>
<BR>
In the first example, <B>a strong wind</B> refers to the cause, and <B>we
decided to stay indoors</B> refers to the effect. In the second example,
<B>high marks</B> refers to the cause, and <B>he has applied for a scholarship</B>
refers to the effect.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 247-->
It should be noted that when <B>such</B> is used as an adjective modifying a
singular countable noun, the word <B>a</B> or <B>an</B> usually follows the word
<B>such</B>.<BR>
e.g. <B>such</B> <U>a</U> strong wind<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <B>such</B> <U>an</U> unusual event<BR>
<BR>
The construction usually used with the expression <B>such ... that</B> is
summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <B>such a</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>that</B> clause stating the</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <B>such an</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; noun &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; effect of the situation</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; or <B>such</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; described in the main clause</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She is such a</TD><TD>&nbsp; hard</TD><TD>&nbsp; worker</TD><TD>&nbsp; that she is sure to succeed.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; That is such an</TD><TD>&nbsp; interesting</TD><TD>&nbsp; book</TD><TD>&nbsp; that I read it three times.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He has such</TD><TD>&nbsp; good</TD><TD>&nbsp; ideas</TD><TD>&nbsp; that he may be promoted.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>

<A NAME="9b"></A>
<B>b. So ... That</B><BR>
The word <B>so</B> combined with a clause beginning with <B>that</B> can also be
used in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.<BR>
<BR>
Whereas <B>such</B> usually modifies a noun, in this construction <B>so</B> is
used as an intensifier modifying an adjective or adverb. <A HREF="gramch24.html#1a">Intensifiers</A>
will be discussed in a later chapter.<BR>
e.g. The wind was <B>so</B> strong <B>that</B> we decided to stay indoors.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; His marks are <B>so</B> high <B>that</B> he has applied for a scholarship.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The wind blew <B>so</B> fiercely <B>that</B> we decided to stay indoors.<BR>
In the first two examples, <B>so</B> modifies the adjectives <B>strong</B> and
<B>high</B>. In the last example, <B>so</B> modifies the adverb <B>fiercely</B>.<BR>
<BR>
This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adverb or</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>that</B> clause stating the</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; subject &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; verb &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>so</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; effect of the situation</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;  </TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;described in the main clause</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; She</TD><TD>&nbsp; sang</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; well</TD><TD>&nbsp; that she had to sing an encore.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The moon</TD><TD>&nbsp; was</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; bright</TD><TD>&nbsp; that we could see for miles.</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<BR>
In informal English, the word <B>that</B> in the expressions <B>such ... that</B> 
and <B>so ... that</B> is often omitted.<BR>
e.g. There was <B>such</B> a  strong wind, we decided to stay indoors.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The moon was <B>so</B> bright, we could see for miles.<BR>
<BR>
<B>So</B> can also be followed by <B>many</B>, <B>much</B>, <B>few</B> or <B>little</B>, followed
by a noun, followed by a clause beginning with <B>that</B>.

<!--page 248-->
This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>many</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>that</B> clause stating the</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>so</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>much</B>, &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; noun &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; effect of the situation</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>few</B> or</TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; described in the main clause</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>little</B></TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; There were</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; many</TD><TD>&nbsp; spectators</TD><TD>&nbsp; that there was standing room only.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; I did</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; much</TD><TD>&nbsp; swimming</TD><TD>&nbsp; that I became very strong.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; He knew</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; few</TD><TD>&nbsp; people</TD><TD>&nbsp; that he often felt lonely.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; There was</TD><TD>&nbsp; so</TD><TD>&nbsp; little</TD><TD>&nbsp; snow</TD><TD>&nbsp; that we could not go skiing.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="9c"></A>
<B>c. Too</B><BR>
The intensifier <B>too</B> used in combination with an infinitive can also
be used to indicate a cause and effect relationship. In the following
examples, the word <B>too</B> is printed in bold type, and the infinitives
are underlined.<BR>
e.g. It is <B>too</B> windy for us <U>to go</U> outside.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He is <B>too</B> poor <U>to continue</U> studying without a scholarship.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; It was raining <B>too</B> hard for us <U>to leave</U> the house.<BR>
In the first two examples, <B>too</B> modifies the adjectives <B>windy</B> and
<B>poor</B>. In the last example, <B>too</B> modifies the adverb <B>hard</B>.<BR>
<BR>
The construction usually used with <B>too</B> in combination with an
infinitive is summarized below, followed by examples.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; adverb or</TD><TD>&nbsp; phrase containing an infinitive,</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; subject &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; verb &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; <B>too</B> &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; adjective &nbsp; +</TD><TD>&nbsp; indicating the effect of the</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp; situation described using <B>too</B></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; They</TD><TD>&nbsp; walked</TD><TD>&nbsp; too</TD><TD>&nbsp; quickly</TD><TD>&nbsp; for me to overtake them.</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; The writing</TD><TD>&nbsp; was</TD><TD>&nbsp; too</TD><TD>&nbsp; difficult</TD><TD>&nbsp; to read.</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex20.html#9">Exercise 9</A>.

<P>
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